General Information for 8th Grade Social Studies
Course Outline
Unit
1. The First Americans, Prehistory to 1492 Exploring the Americas, 1400-1625 2. Colonial America, 1587-1770 The Colonies Grow, 1607-1770 3. Road to Independence, 1763-1776 The American Revolution, 1776-1783 A More Perfect Union, 1777-1790 Barney Fife: The Preamble to the Constitution 4. A New Nation, 1789-1800 The Jefferson Era, 1800-1816 Growth and Expansion, 1790-1825 The Industrial Revolution 5. The Jackson Era, 1824-1845 Manifest Destiny, 1818-1853 North and South, 1820-1860 The Age of Reform, 1820-1860 6. Road to Civil War, 1820-1861 The Civil War, 1861-1865 Reconstruction and Its Aftermath, 1865-1896 7. Reshaping the Nation, 1877-1929 The Making of Modern America, 1929-present |
Summary of Unit
The first Americans arrived thousands of years ago. Scientists believe they crossed a land bridge from Asia to Alaska during the last Ice Age. These nomads were moving from place to place searching for food. Several groups developed great civilizations. In some parts of Mexico and Central America, the Maya created great cities and studied astronomy and mathematics. The Aztec founded a permanent home in Central Mexico. Their city, Tenochtitlán, was the largest in the Americas, and one of the largest in the world. The empire of the Inca developed in the western highlands of South America. They built a large system of roads and bridges to maintain communication throughout their kingdom. In North America, the Mound Builders, who lived in the area from present-day Pennsylvania to the Mississippi River valley, may have been influenced by the cultures of Mexico. The Hohokam and the Anasazi built complex structures in the desert regions of the Southwest. In the far north, the Inuit people adapted to a cold and frozen environment. Native Americans in the West developed a way of life that used the resources of the forest and the sea. On the Great Plains, the Dakota, Apache, and other tribes continued a nomadic way of life. Many of the groups who lived in the East formed complex political systems to govern their nations. Wherever they lived in North America, the first Americans developed ways of life that were well suited to their environments. From the A.D. 1200s through the 1400s, Europeans began seeking new ways to obtain the spices, silks, and riches of the Orient. As trade increased it brought them into greater contact with people in Africa and the Americas. Powerful kingdoms flourished in Africa south of the Sahara between 300 and 1600. The civilizations of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai established cities that were centers of trade and learning. Early Portuguese explorers sailed down the coast of Africa and around the Cape of Good Hope to reach the riches of the Indies. Sailing for Spain, Christopher Columbus believed that he could sail west and reach Asia. In 1492 his expedition landed on an island in the Caribbean; he believed, however, that he had reached the East. His "discovery" led to further explorations by other Europeans, who realized that this was a "new" land. Other Spanish explorers conquered Native Americans, such as the Aztec and the Inca. The wealth of these groups became the wealth of Spain. As Spanish control spread, so did the pueblos, missions, presidios, and plantations of settlers from Spain. Europe also experienced changes during this time. Religious differences arose as a result of the Protestant Reformation. Nations developed economic rivalries that led them to compete for land in the Americas. Explorers from other nations continued to search for a route to the East. The Netherlands and France explored the east coast of North America seeking a Northwest Passage to Asia. By defeating an armada of Spanish ships, England ended Spain’s control of the seas. This opened the way for other European powers to colonize the New World. After making several unsuccessful attempts to establish a colony, England founded the first permanent English settlement at Jamestown in 1607. For several years the colony experienced hard times and many settlers died. By 1619, however, it became clear that the colony would stay. There were many different reasons for founding colonies in America. The members of the Virginia Company hoped to make a large profit. Other colonies were founded in a search for religious freedom. Pilgrims trying to escape persecution in England settled in Plymouth. In time, Puritans from England established the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Connecticut and Rhode Island were established by people who disagreed with the leaders of the Puritan colony. In many cases the early colonists would not have survived without the help of Native Americans. However, conflicts also arose. The Dutch had established colonies along the Hudson River and on Manhattan Island. After being taken over by the English, these settlements became the English colonies of New York and New Jersey. Another Middle Colony, Pennsylvania, was founded as a home for Quakers. Maryland, a Southern Colony, was a place where Catholics could freely practice their religion. Agriculture played an important role in the development of North and South Carolina, while Georgia—the last of the British colonies in America—was established as a home for debtors. Many people came willingly to this new land to make a fresh start. Others were brought unwillingly to America as enslaved people or indentured servants. From the very beginning America was a country with a diverse population. As the American colonies grew, each region developed an economy based on its own resources and geography. New England focused on fishing, shipbuilding, and trade. The fertile soil of the Middle Colonies supported farming. Many businesses and some manufacturing also developed there. New York and Philadelphia became the largest cities in the colonies. In the South, tobacco and rice were the major cash crops. The triangular trade of the New England colonies brought enslaved Africans to work on the large plantations of the South. The English principles of limited government and representative government greatly influenced the development of the colonies, and, later, of the United States. As the colonies grew they relied more and more on their own governments to make local laws. By the 1760s there were three types of colonies in America—charter colonies, proprietary colonies, and royal colonies. The Great Awakening, a religious revival, swept through the colonies during the 1730s and 1740s and led to the formation of many new churches. As a distinctly American culture developed, it was influenced by a strong belief in education and the ideas of the Enlightenment. As the growing population of the American colonies pushed up against French-held territory, hostility between Britain and France increased. Both sides recognized the importance of making allies among the Native Americans. In 1753 George Washington led a mission into the Ohio country to demand that the French leave the area. When they refused, he returned several months later with a militia group but was defeated. His defeat marked the beginning of the French and Indian War. The fighting in the colonies was only one part of a war involving Britain, France, and Spain that lasted from 1756 to 1763. By 1763 Britain had won, marking the end of France as a power in North America. The end of the French and Indian War did not lead to a period of peace. Colonists became angry at Britain’s Proclamation prohibiting settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. They were also alarmed at new regulations and taxes designed to increase British revenues. To oppose those measures, men like Patrick Henry spoke out in colonial legislatures. Others formed organizations such as the Sons of Liberty. Through boycotts and protests they forced Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts. Tensions increased when violence erupted in 1770 in the Boston Massacre. Three years later colonists disguised as Native Americans dumped tea into Boston Harbor. The British response was quick and, to the colonists, intolerable. By 1774, colonial leaders recognized the need for unified action. The First Continental Congress was called. The first shots of the American Revolution were fired on April 19, 1775, in Lexington, Massachusetts. The Second Continental Congress created the Continental Army and appointed George Washington as the army’s commander. By July 1776 the colonists were ready to declare independence. After the colonies declared independence from Great Britain in July 1776, the war for freedom was unavoidable. The British, with a superior navy, larger population, and world empire, seemed to have all of the advantages. But the colonists were fighting for their freedom on their own ground. They were determined to win. Battles were fought in every region of the colonies. The colonists' victory at Saratoga was a turning point in the war. Not only did it boost American spirits—it also convinced France to support the American cause. The financial and military aid of France, and, later, of Spain, was crucial to the war effort. General Washington and his French allies eventually were able to surround the British general, Lord Charles Cornwallis, and his troops at Yorktown, Virginia. On October 19, 1781, the British surrendered. The peace treaty was signed in 1783 and the United States was recognized as a free and independent nation. After winning their independence from Great Britain, the thirteen states adopted new state constitutions. They also needed to form some kind of central government. Adopted in 1777, the Articles of Confederation was the first government of the United States. By 1787 the weaknesses of the Articles were clear. A convention was held in Philadelphia during the summer of 1787. While originally planned merely to revise the Articles of Confederation, the convention eventually adopted an entirely new plan: the Constitution. Delegates worked to settle differences over representation and slavery. Incorporating ideas from English law, the Enlightenment, and their own experiences, they designed a federal system that divided powers between the national government and the states. Further, they split the functions of government among three branches: the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. After strong debate throughout the country, the new Constitution was ratified by all thirteen states. It now was time for the nation to elect leaders and begin the work of government. With the ratification of the new Constitution, the United States was ready to face its many challenges. George Washington, unanimously elected as the first president, chose prominent political figures to lead the executive departments. The first Congress established a federal court system. Ten amendments, known as the Bill of Rights, were added to the Constitution to ensure the rights of the people and of the states. Many of the greatest challenges involved the national debt and the country's finances. Not everyone was happy with the decisions made by the new government. Farmers in western Pennsylvania led an armed revolt, called the Whiskey Rebellion, to protest taxes. In the west, American settlers clashed with Native Americans. Troubles with Britain, France, and Spain all required the nation’s leaders to exercise skilled diplomacy. At the end of his second term, President Washington announced that he would not seek reelection. In his farewell address he warned the nation about the dangers of political parties. It was too late. The Federalist and Democratic-Republican Parties had already formed. The nation’s second president, John Adams, faced problems with France and division within his own political party. In 1800 the Federalist and Republican parties fought a bitter presidential election campaign. A tie vote in the Electoral College left the final decision in the hands of the House of Representatives. Thomas Jefferson finally was chosen as the third president of the United States. As a supporter of states’ rights Jefferson aimed to reduce the national debt, cut taxes, and slash spending. One of the most important acts of Jefferson’s presidency was the purchase of the Louisiana Territory. An expedition to explore the new territory was led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. A Shoshone woman, Sacagawea, served as their guide for part of the trip. The United States' thriving foreign trade depended on being able to freely sail the world's seas and oceans. When Barbary pirates operating from North Africa threatened that freedom, the United States negotiated a resolution to the crisis. More significant problems arose as Britain and France again went to war against each other. In response to acts that violated America's neutral rights, Congress passed an embargo against Britain. The embargo proved disastrous for Americans and was soon repealed. James Madison was elected president in 1808. He faced continuing problems with Great Britain and threats from Native Americans in the West. War Hawks in Congress pressed for an increase in military spending. In 1812 the United States declared war against Britain. Important battles were fought at Lake Erie, Detroit, Horseshoe Bend, Washington, D.C., and Baltimore. After their defeat at Plattsburgh, British leaders decided that the war was too costly and unnecessary, and American and British representatives signed the Treaty of Ghent in 1814. Before word of peace could reach America, however, General Andrew Jackson led his troops to a decisive victory over the British at New Orleans. In the mid-1700s, inventors in Great Britain created machinery to perform some of the work involved in cloth making. These innovations led to changes, not only in industry, but also in the way people lived. The British tried to keep their new industrial technology a secret. However, one man, Samuel Slater, memorized the design of some of the machines and then immigrated to the United States. In Rhode Island he took over the management of a cotton mill and duplicated many of the new designs. As the Industrial Revolution spread through the United States, new technology contributed to the growth of cities and agriculture. During the 1800s Americans moved west of the Appalachian Mountains in increasing numbers. To support the movement of people and goods, roads and canals were built connecting the East with the Ohio River valley. President James Monroe won the election of 1816 by an overwhelming majority. During his first administration a spirit of unity existed throughout the country. Before long, however, this feeling of unity dissolved into regional differences. In other areas, colonies in Central and South America rebelled against Spanish control. In 1822 Spain asked France, Austria, Russia, and Prussia for help in its fight against revolutionary forces in South America. The possibility of increased European involvement in North America led President Monroe to issue a statement declaring that the United States would oppose any new European colonies in North and South America. His statement later became known as the Monroe Doctrine. In 1824 four candidates from the Republican Party competed for the presidency. Although Andrew Jackson received the largest number of popular votes, no one won a majority of electoral votes. In what some called a "corrupt bargain," Speaker of the House Henry Clay threw his support to John Quincy Adams and helped him win the presidency. By 1828 the Republican Party had divided into the Democratic-Republicans (or Democrats) who supported Jackson, and the National Republicans who supported Adams. In the presidential election of 1828, after a campaign characterized by mudslinging, Jackson won an overwhelming victory. Many issues, however, continued to divide the country. As Americans moved westward, they came into more conflict with Native Americans. Settlers wanted the federal government to move Native Americans in the Southeast to land west of the Mississippi River. In 1834 Congress created the Indian Territory, an area in present-day Oklahoma. The Cherokee Nation refused to give up its land. In spite of Cherokee pleas, the army threatened to use force. Brutal weather claimed thousands of Cherokee lives during their forced journey west, known as the Trail of Tears. Jackson was re-elected in 1832. In 1836 his friend Martin Van Buren was elected president. Two months after Van Buren took office, the country entered a severe economic depression. In 1840 William Henry Harrison, a Whig, won the presidency. Four weeks later, Harrison died, and his vice president, John Tyler, became president. The Whigs, however, were unable to hold the presidency. After only four years, they lost to the Democratic candidate, James K. Polk. In the first half of the nineteenth century Americans spread westward across the continent. Living by trapping beaver and trading furs, mountain men explored the mountains, valleys, and trails of the West. In Oregon, missionaries were followed by thousands of pioneers searching for rich farmland, a new life, and adventure. The first large-scale wagon train left Independence, Missouri, for Oregon in 1843. As more settlers moved into the Oregon Territory the United States and Britain clashed over the northern border with Canada. In 1846, the two countries compromised by setting the boundary at 49°N. In Texas land was offered to people who were willing to bring their families to settle there. By 1830 Americans in Texas far outnumbered Mexicans. The Mexican government became alarmed and began limiting U.S. immigration to and trade with Texas, leading some American settlers to call for independence. At the Battle of the Alamo, a small Texas force held off several thousand Mexican troops for 12 days. Although eventually defeated and killed, their courage inspired others in the fight for freedom. At the Battle of San Jacinto, the Texans surprised the Mexican army and won their independence. In 1845, Texas became part of the United States. The United States and Mexico did not agree on the southern border of Texas. In addition, the United States wanted to buy New Mexico and California. Many Americans, including President James K. Polk, believed in Manifest Destiny—the United States' right to the land all the way to the Pacific. In 1846, the conflict with Mexico became a war. By winning the war, the United States gained California and the rest of the Southwest. In 1848 the discovery of gold brought thousands to California, hoping to find quick riches. Those who arrived in 1849 were called "forty-niners." By 1850 California was ready to apply for statehood. In the Utah Territory a religious group settled near the Great Salt Lake. Led by Joseph Smith and later by Brigham Young, Mormons made the journey west to escape religious persecution. In the first half of the nineteenth century industrialization and technology changed life in America. Steamboats, clipper ships, and steam locomotives improved transportation. The telegraph made communication faster. Innovations such as the McCormick reaper increased productivity on the nation's farms. The North was characterized by a growing factory system, larger cities, and a new wave of immigration. The economy of the South also prospered between 1820 and 1860, but the South remained largely rural and agricultural. Its main cash crop was cotton. Those who lived in the South included wealthy planters, yeoman, and enslaved African Americans. Many of those who were enslaved tried to resist slavery through work slow-downs, escape, and even revolt. By 1860 there were great differences between the North and South. In the early 1800s a spirit of reform swept through America. The Second Great Awakening, a religious revival, inspired people to become involved in missionary work and social reform movements. The temperance movement warned of the dangers of alcoholic beverages. Horace Mann was a leader in education reform. By the 1850s most states began to move toward free, public education for all students. Other reformers focused on improving life for those with special needs. The abolitionist movement also grew in numbers and in strength during this time. William Lloyd Garrison and the Grimké sisters spoke out publicly against slavery. Although these and other white abolitionists drew public attention to the cause, African Americans themselves played a major role in antislavery efforts. Frederick Douglass was the most widely known African American abolitionist. Others took more direct action in leading enslaved people to freedom. The Underground Railroad helped runaway slaves from the South reach freedom and safety in the North. The most famous "conductor" on this train was Harriet Tubman. The right to vote was an important part of the women’s movement. A convention was held at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. There a call was made for an end to all laws that discriminated against women. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, and Susan B. Anthony were famous leaders of the women’s movement. Between 1819 and 1860 events led the United States closer to a civil war. The major issue in these events was slavery in the territories. In 1819 Missouri applied to Congress to join the United States. The admission of Missouri, a slave state, would have upset the balance of 11 slave states and 11 free states that currently existed in the Union. The Missouri Compromise offset the admission of Missouri with that of a free state, Maine. When California sought statehood in 1850 another compromise was needed. The Compromise of 1850 admitted California as a free state, but removed restrictions on slavery in the New Mexico territory and created a stronger fugitive slave law. When conflict arose again over the Kansas and Nebraska territories, Stephen A. Douglas's plan—popular sovereignty—was applied to the new territories. In Kansas, proslavery and antislavery forces clashed violently. As the issue of slavery divided the nation, a new political party was forged from antislavery Whigs and Democrats and Free-Soilers. The Supreme Court's Dred Scott decision contributed to the controversy. Chief Justice Taney's ruling stated that there was no constitutional provision that could prohibit slavery anywhere. By 1860 many Southerners felt that they could no long stay in the Union. The election of Republican Abraham Lincoln led several Southern states to secede. They formed the Confederate States of America. After Confederate forces fired on Fort Sumter, a federal fort in Charleston Harbor in South Carolina, President Lincoln issued a call for troops. The Civil War had begun. From 1861 to 1865 the United States was torn apart by a great civil war. The North held advantages in miles of railroad, food production, banking, and manufacturing. The South had brilliant military leaders, a knowledge of the land, and a fierce desire to preserve the Southern way of life. The First Battle of Bull Run showed both sides that this would be a long, difficult conflict. On the home front both Northerners and Southerners faced deprivations and hardships. The South, however, saw homes, fields, and livelihoods destroyed. Many Northern and Southern women took on new responsibilities. Some people were opposed to the war, and riots over draft laws broke out in several Northern cities. Overall, the North's industrial economy boomed during the war, while the Southern economy suffered terribly. From the start, the Northerners' main goal was to preserve the Union rather than to destroy slavery. As the war went on, however, Northern attitudes began to change. Many believed that slavery was helping the war effort in the South. On January 1, 1863, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing all enslaved people in the Confederacy. This action convinced antislavery Britain and France not to support the Confederacy. In July of that year battles at Gettysburg and Vicksburg marked a turning point in the war. By the spring of 1865, Union forces were able to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond. On April 9, 1865, Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House in Virginia. The long, terrible conflict had ended. As the Civil War drew to a close, President Lincoln and the leaders in Congress began to develop plans to bring the South back into the nation. Lincoln's plan sought to heal the country, rather than punish the South. Radical Republicans in Congress wanted a harsher plan—one that would make the South suffer for causing the war. The assassination of President Lincoln threw the country into mourning and set the stage for a divisive political battle between President Johnson and Congressional Republicans. Eventually the conflict led the House of Representatives to impeach Johnson. The Senate vote was one short of that needed to remove the president from office. A key part of Reconstruction was the establishment of civil rights for African Americans. The Thirteenth Amendment outlawed slavery in the United States. The Fourteenth Amendment defined citizenship, and the Fifteenth Amendment prohibited state and federal governments from denying the vote to any male citizen because of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." The Freedmen's Bureau distributed food and clothing and provided medical services to African Americans. Perhaps its most important service, however, was to establish schools and provide teachers. As some African Americans exercised their right to vote, others took elected positions in state legislatures, the House of Representatives, and the Senate. Some whites wanted to limit the rights of African Americans. They accomplished this through the passage of laws called black codes. Other groups, such as the Ku Klux Klan, used intimidation and violence to prevent freed men and women from exercising their rights. From 1869 to 1877 former Union general Ulysses S. Grant was president of the United States. A series of scandals involving unfair business deals and corruption damaged the reputation of the Republican Party during Grant's administration. In the election of 1876 the Democratic candidate, Samuel Tilden, received the majority of the popular votes. However, disputed returns prevented him from receiving a majority of the electoral vote. A special commission awarded the disputed votes to the Republican candidate, Rutherford B. Hayes. Hayes declared that Reconstruction was over. Following the Civil War, settlers began to move west. Miners, ranchers, and farmers settled on the Great Plains, despite resistance from Native Americans. The railroads, the soil and climate, and land laws such as the Homestead Act encouraged settlement of the Plains. This expansion resulted in the slaughter of vast numbers of buffaloes on the Plains, an animal on which the Native American way of life was dependent. Conflict arose as the federal government tried to move Native Americans from their homelands to reservations. At the same time that many settlers were moving west, others moved to the cities. The United States was changing from a rural nation into a modern, industrial nation. Rich natural resources, the growth of the railroads, and an invention boom spurred the industrialization of the country. Cities also grew at this time because of immigrants. After the Civil War, many immigrants arrived from southern and eastern Europe as well as from China, Japan, and Mexico. Many of them settled in cities and looked for work. During the 1880s and 1890s reformers began to campaign to deal with city problems such as overcrowding, crime, and poor sanitation. The progressive movement of the early 1900s grew out of the reform movements of the previous decades. Progressives sought to control unfair business practices and expand democracy. Others fought for woman suffrage, or women's right to vote, which was finally granted in 1920 by the Nineteenth Amendment. African Americans and Mexican Americans also worked for greater equality. A spirit of imperialism emerged among the world's countries in the late 1800s and early 1900s. This, along with feelings of nationalism, led to tensions that erupted into world war in 1914. World War I pitted the Allies—Great Britain, France, Russia, and the United States—against the Central Powers—Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire. After the Allies won the long, difficult war, Americans were ready to seek enjoyment at home. The 1920s were a time of new pastimes and recreation as the nation enjoyed a booming post-war economy. In the 1930s the United States fell into a severe economic crisis called the Great Depression. The economy crumbled, and joblessness and poverty skyrocketed. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal programs sought to ease Americans' suffering and fight the Depression. It was not until World War II broke out, however, that the nation fully recovered from the Depression. World War II began when Adolf Hitler, leader of the Nazi Party in Germany, invaded Poland. The United States joined the war on the side of the Allies—Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union—when Japan attacked the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor. Japan, Germany, and Italy formed the Axis powers. In April 1945, the Allies achieved victory in Europe. The war in the Pacific ended after the United States dropped two atomic bombs on Japan. On the American home front, the war caused industry to expand rapidly and created new opportunities for women and African Americans. As World War II ended, a rivalry—known as the Cold War—developed between the United States and the Soviet Union. The United States was committed to stopping the spread of communism, a goal that led to American involvement in the Korean War and the Vietnam War. The post-war era was a time of economic prosperity for Americans. The civil rights movement also began in the 1950s as African Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans, and women struggled for equal rights. The second half of the twentieth century brought many challenges to the United States. During the 1970s the United States suffered from an oil embargo imposed by the Arab states. President Nixon was caught in the Watergate scandal and became the first U.S. president to resign. President George Bush became involved in a war in the Middle East when Iraq invaded Kuwait. Another crisis emerged soon after Bush's son, George W. Bush, won the presidency in 2000. On September 11, 2001, terrorists attacked the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., leading Bush to gather a worldwide coalition to support a war against terrorism. The effort to protect Americans continued when the U.S. military attacked Iraq in March 2003. President Bush argued that the Iraqis were hiding weapons of mass destruction. Even after the regime of Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein was toppled, it was clear that the path toward a stable Iraq would not be easy. |