General Information for 6th Grade Social Studies
Course Outline
Unit
1. Geography and History Prehistoric People 2. Mesopotamia Egypt Eastern River Valleys Mesopotamia - from Nomads to Farmers Hammurabi's Code 3. The Phoenicians and the Hebrews Military Empires Africa and the Americas 4. Beginnings The City-States Cultural Contributions The Hellenistic Period 5. Beginnings The Roman Republic The Roman Empire Christianity 6. The Germans The Franks The Irish and the Anglo-Saxons The Vikings The Vikings 1/5 The Vikings 2/5 The Vikings 3/5 The Vikings 4/5 The Vikings 5/5 7. The Byzantine Empire The Spread of Islam The Eastern Slavs 8. Feudal Society The Church Rise of Trade and Towns Rise of Monarchies 9. The Renaissance The Reformation The Age of Discovery 10. Expansion Into the Americas Political Revolutions Rise of Industry 11. The Americas Unrest in Europe Rise of Imperialism 12. Conflict and Change The Cold War Era The World Since 1989 |
Summary of Unit
Many scientists believe that people have been living on the earth for more than 2 million years. Where and how they lived was influenced by the kind of land on which they lived. The relationships between people and their environment have been the center of world history. The relationships between geography and history are the central focus of Chapter 1. Section 1 introduces the six essential elements of geography—the world in spatial terms, places and regions, physical systems, human systems, environment and society, and the uses of geography—and describes how these elements explain what a place is like and why. Section 2 describes how landforms and climate have shaped history and introduces the concepts of plate tectonics and continental drift. Section 3 focuses on the ways that natural resources have affected the location and growth of settlements throughout history. Section 4 tells about ancient legends that people in China, Africa, and Rumania have used to help explain the past. Section 5 explores how archaeology and carbon dating help scientists learn about ancient civilizations. Most archaeologists believe that there have been people on the earth for about 1.75 million years. The period beginning when people first appeared and ending when writing developed about 5,000 years ago is called prehistory. The period after writing developed is called history. Chapter 2 explores the prehistoric period and the beginning of civilization, when people began to advance culturally and to live in cities. Section 1 discusses the Paleolithic Age, when people first began to migrate from Africa to Europe and Asia. It explains how tools, language, clothing, and the discovery of fire helped early people, the Neanderthals and the Cro-Magnons, advance. Section 2 focuses on the Neolithic Age, when people changed from food gatherers to food producers. It explains why specialization, government, and religion were important in Neolithic societies. Chapter 3 explores the earliest known civilizations which developed along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Groups of people migrated into the area from the north and the south. They found the land rich and fertile, and the rivers provided water and food. In ancient times, the area where these groups settled was called Mesopotamia, meaning "the land between the rivers." Section 1 describes how religion, family life, and city-state government influenced Sumer, the first known civilization in the world. Section 2 focuses on other Mesopotamian civilizations that developed after Sumer. Sargon I of Akkad conquered the Sumerians and created the world's first empire. Hammurabi conquered Akkad and Sumer and established the Babylonian empire. Section 3 explains how the inventions, customs, and ideas of the Sumerian culture and the Babylonian culture contributed to other civilizations. A people called the Egyptians settled in the Nile River valley of northeast Africa. The Egyptian civilization lasted longer than that of Mesopotamia and became a rich, powerful, and united nation. The more than 2,000 years of Egyptian civilization is the focus of Chapter 4. Section 1 explains why the Nile River was so important to the growth of Egyptian civilization. Section 2 discusses how pharaohs, pyramids, and religious beliefs influenced the Old Kingdom of Egypt. Section 3 describes the events that took place during the period of Egyptian civilization called the Middle Kingdom. Section 4 focuses on the period of Egyptian civilization known as the New Kingdom, when most pharaohs were interested in war and conquest. It was toward the end of the New Kingdom that Egypt began to decline. Section 5 details the many contributions made by Egypt to later civilization, including surveying, several medical treatments, and papyrus. Chapter 5 deals with the civilizations that developed in the isolated river valleys of the East. Less is known about these civilizations than those of Mesopotamia and Egypt because high mountains, broad deserts, and large bodies of water cut off the people who settled in the eastern river valleys from other parts of the world. Much of what is known comes from legend. Section 1 describes how the Indus River valley civilization developed in South Asia, beginning about 2500 B.C. The Harappan people of the Indus River valley learned to control the river. They are believed to have been the first people to produce cotton cloth, bake bricks in ovens, and build sanitation systems. Two Harappan cities are the oldest known planned communities in the world. Section 2 focuses on the development of the Shang dynasty in the Huang Ho (Yellow River) valley of northern China. It explores how religion influenced the Shang and examines the lasting impact of their fine bronze works of art. Chapter 6 covers two groups-the Phoenicians and the Hebrews-who settled on land that connected Egypt and Mesopotamia. Called Canaan, today that land is shared by Lebanon and Israel. The Phoenicians and the Hebrews were interested in trade and learning. Both groups benefited by the exchange of goods and ideas that flowed between Egypt and Mesopotamia. Section 1 describes how trade and their links to the sea helped the Phoenicians build their civilizations. The Phoenicians established many colonies along the North African coast that grew into important cities. Through trade, the Phoenicians spread goods and ideas, including a system of writing. Section 2 explores the story of the Hebrews as it is recorded in the Bible. The Hebrews contributed many important things to later civilizations, among them the belief in one, just god and in social justice. Chapter 7 discusses the military empires that rose and fell in Mesopotamia during the period when the Phoenicians and the Hebrews were developing civilizations. The Assyrians, the Chaldeans, and the Persians established these empires. These peoples raised powerful armies and expanded into neighboring lands, spreading both their customs and their ideas. Section 1 covers the Assyrians, explaining how they established and maintained a large empire in Mesopotamia with their powerful and well-organized army. Although the Assyrian empire was divided into provinces, it became too large to govern and eventually failed. Section 2 deals with the Chaldeans, another warrior people. The Chaldeans called themselves Babylonians and built a capital at Babylon, which is described as a rich center of trade, arts, and science. Section 3 focuses on the Persians, a people who lived as warriors, farmers, and shepherds. Although the Persians were not traders, they encouraged trading within their empire through which caravans traveled to and from China. Chapter 8 explores the civilizations that grew up in Africa and in the Americas. These civilizations are described as being of two kinds. One kind was interested in trade and ideas. The other was interested in war. Section 1 explains how the ancient African civilizations of Kush and Aksum passed along elements of their culture. Ancient Kush was located south of Egypt on the Nile River. Conquered first by the Egyptians and later by the Assyrians, Kushites learned much from both cultures. As Kush declined, another kingdom, Aksum, rose to take its place. Like Kush, Aksum was a trading country. Section 2 deals with the West African trading kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. The trade of these empires was based on gold, salt, and other goods. Section 3 covers the rise of two trading kingdoms and city-states in East Africa. The Bantu-speaking Shona set up a trading kingdom in Zimbabwe after a population explosion in their homeland forced them to find new homes. Kilwa and other coastal cities handled trade between Africa and Arabia, Persia, India, and China. Section 4 discusses the migration of hunting-and-food-gathering people to the Americas about 25,000 years ago. Over time, people spread out over the Americas. Farming villages developed as people needed to find new ways of getting food. Section 5 focuses on the early civilizations of Mesoamerica. The Olmecs developed cities, hieroglyphic writing, and a calendar. The Maya were great traders, mathematicians, and astronomers. A warlike people, the Aztec ruled central Mexico until they lost their empire to the Spaniards. Section 6 covers the huge, wealthy empire of the Inca and describes the Inca way of life. The Inca controlled their empire through a common religion, language, and system of roads. Chapter 9 focuses on the beginnings of Greek civilization, explaining how it developed from two earlier civilizations—Minoan and Mycenaean. Although both these sea powers were eventually destroyed, the Minoans and Mycenaeans left an important legacy to the Greeks. Section 1 discusses the development and fall of the Minoan civilization on the island of Crete. Minoans worshiped many gods and built shrines to worship the Great Goddess, Mother Earth. Although they were first farmers, most Minoans turned to trade to earn a living, helped by their location in the Mediterranean Sea. Only legend explains why control of Crete and the sea ultimately fell to the Mycenaeans. Section 2 follows the migration of the Mycenaeans from southern Russia through the Balkan Peninsula to Greece. Although successful traders, the Mycenaeans were happier being warriors. After years of civil war and a successful war with Troy, the Mycenaeans were conquered by the Dorians. The Aegean world entered a "Dark Age" that lasted for 300 years. As a new civilization emerged, its people called themselves Greeks. Although the Greeks of different communities shared a common language and many of the same customs and beliefs, they did not have much to do with one another due to geographic separation. No single community had power over the others. Each controlled its own affairs. A sense of unity, however, began to develop among the people of each community, and the outlines of Greek civilization were formed. Chapter 10 focuses on the development of two Greek city-states. Section 1 describes why the polis was the geographic and political center of Greek life. Section 2 discusses the harsh life in the military city-state of Sparta. Spartans rejected new ideas, believing that change would weaken their way of life. Section 3 explores life in the city-state of Athens and examines the Persian Wars and their effects on Greece. Athens put into effect the world's first democratic constitution. After the defeat of the Persians, Athens became Greece's leading polis. After the Peloponnesian War with Sparta, the city-state lost its status and power. Section 4 focuses on the decline of the city-states. After the Peloponnesian War, most Greeks began to lose their sense of community. After the war, Sparta ruled Greece until a group of city-states overthrew Spartan rule. No longer united, Greece could not fight off invaders and was conquered by Macedonia. The Greeks made many contributions to the arts and sciences of Western civilization. A great deal of this came about because of what the Greeks believed about their gods. They saw their gods as the source of all power. The Greeks believed they could honor their gods by imitating them. This meant being the best they could be in everything they did. The result was the "Golden Age" of Greek culture, the focus of Chapter 11. Section 1 introduces the Olympian gods and goddesses and explains how the Greeks honored them in athletics and theatrical tragedies and comedies. Section 2 explains the importance the Greeks gave to "philosophia"—the ability to learn and reason. It focuses on the ways that Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek thinkers influenced the development of Western civilization. A chart lists many Greek scientists and describes their accomplishments in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, geography, and medicine. After the Greek city-states lost their independence, many changes took place. The new rulers of Greece built empires and increased trade, thereby spreading Greek culture and customs to other parts of the world. Chapter 12 explores this period which has come to be called the Hellenistic Age. Section 1 explains how Philip II of Macedonia gained control of Greece and set out to unify the city-states and spread Greek culture. Section 2 describes how Alexander, the son of Philip II, attempted to bring unity to his empire after his father died. Alexander was a great general who never lost a battle and whose conquests stretched from the Nile River to the Indus River. He tried to bring the Macedonians, the Greeks, and the Persians together but was unsuccessful. After Alexander's death, many Greeks emigrated in response to the disunity and powerlessness of the city-states. Greek cultural influences, however, became stronger than ever. On the west coast of the Italian peninsula is the mouth of the Tiber River. Fifteen miles upstream where the river is shallow stands a group of seven hills. On the hill known as Palatine, a settlement was founded that came to be known as Rome. Chapter 13 introduces the Romans and explains how the Etruscans contributed to Roman civilization. Section 1 deals with the founding of Rome according to the ancient legend of Romulus and Remus and according to historical and archaeological experts. Section 2 describes what daily life was like for the Etruscans, the people who lived just north of Rome on the Palatine. The Etruscans were pirates, traders, farmers, miners, and soldiers, and they had a strong sense of social order. Section 3 highlights the many Etruscan contributions to Roman civilization. The Etruscans taught the Romans many things, including the use of the arch in building, the alphabet, and a ritual for establishing cities. In 509 B.C. the Romans overthrew Tarquin the Proud, their Etruscan king. They then set up a republic, a form of government in which people choose their rulers. Chapter 14 focuses on the Roman Republic. Section 1 explains how the government of the Roman Republic was organized. Section 2 covers how the Roman Republic was able to expand and protect its territory from Etruscan control. Section 3 explores the 118-year period during which Rome and Carthage fought three wars known as the Punic Wars. Section 4 describes how the conquests and the wealth that came with them changed Rome's economy and government. Among the changes were the replacement of small farms by large estates, the coming of slavery, a movement from farms to cities, and the decline of the Roman Republic. Section 5 focuses on the many popular leaders, including the Gracchus brothers, Gaius Marius, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, and Julius Caesar, who tried to reform and save the Roman Republic. Chapter 15 explores the Roman Empire from the rule of Augustus, its first emperor, to its fall to Germanic invaders more than 400 years later. Section 1 explains how Augustus ruled the Roman Empire, bringing renewed organization and peace to Rome and pride and a new sense of patriotism to its citizens. Section 2 describes what happened to trade and law in the Roman Empire during the 200-year period known as the Pax Romana. Section 3 explains what family life, education, and leisure activities were like for the one million citizens who lived in Rome during the Pax Romana. Section 4 covers the period after the Pax Romana ended and explains why the Roman Empire collapsed: the lack of a formal rule concerning who was to inherit the throne, inflation, and attacks by Germanic invaders. A chart lists the accomplishments of the emperors who reigned during the Pax Romana. Just as the Romans influenced the lives of people they conquered, those people influenced the lives of the Romans. Among those who brought new ideas and important changes were the Christians. Chapter 16 explores Christianity and its spread and influence in the Roman Empire. Section 1 introduces the beginnings of Christianity through the life and teachings of Jesus based on his study of the scriptures. Section 2 explains political conditions in Rome and how Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire beginning with Paul, its first missionary, up until the time Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. Section 3 describes how early Christian churches were organized and what life was like for early monks and nuns. During the first 400 years after the birth of Christ, a people called Germans migrated from northern Europe toward the Roman Empire. Many Germans moved into the Danube River valley and adopted some Roman ways while keeping much of their own culture. Chapter 17 focuses on the Germans. Section 1 describes what life was like in German villages where people lived in clans, or groups based on family ties. Section 2 explores the role the Goths and the Vandals played in the decline of the Roman Empire and what replaced the Roman Empire in the West. The decline of the Roman Empire led to disorder everywhere in western Europe. Many of the Germanic invaders were too weak to govern well. During this period a Germanic people called the Franks became very important. Chapter 18 focuses on the Franks and the civilization they built in what is today France and Germany. Section 1 explains how a Frankish king, named Clovis, united the Franks and converted them to Christianity. Section 2 focuses on Charles Martel, a Frankish mayor called "The Hammer" because of his strength in battles, and how his defeat of the Arabs kept western Europe Christian. Section 3 describes how a grandson of Charles Martel, named Charlemagne, brought all of western Europe under his rule. The section also covers what life was like in Charlemagne's empire and explains why the empire ultimately collapsed. Off the coast of Europe lies a group of islands that never became part of Charlemagne's empire. Today these islands are known as the British Isles and include Great Britain, Ireland, and many smaller islands. Chapter 19 deals with the people who built settlements and set up small kingdoms on these islands after Roman rule crumbled. These people were known as the Irish and the Anglo-Saxons. Section 1 focuses on what life was like in Ireland, the major center of Celtic culture after the Anglo-Saxons drove most of the Celts from Britain. Section 2 explores the development and spread of Christianity in Ireland and England. The section also focuses on why the Anglo-Saxons united under Alfred the Great and what life was like in the shires of Anglo-Saxon England. During the 900s, Charlemagne's empire and Anglo-Saxon England were attacked by new invaders known as Norsemen, or Vikings. They came from the far northern part of Europe that is now called Scandinavia. Chapter 20 centers on the Vikings. Section 1 describes Scandinavia, the homeland of the Vikings. Because of their location on the sea, the Vikings turned to shipbuilding, fishing, and trade. Trade led to the growth of towns and villages throughout Scandinavia, governed by military rulers called jarls. Section 2 explores what daily life was like for the Vikings and explains the importance of the Norse gods before and after the coming of Christianity. A chart lists the names and realms of many Norse gods. Section 3 focuses on how Viking warriors and adventurers raided and traded in other lands from eastern Europe to North America. The section also deals with the role the Danish Vikings played in the histories of England and France. Emperor Constantine I moved the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople around A.D. 330. About 100 years later, the Roman Empire in the West fell. The Roman Empire in the East, however, survived and prospered. It became known as the Byzantine Empire. Chapter 21 focuses on the Byzantine Empire. Section 1 explores the capital city of Constantinople, why it was important to the Empire, and how it contributed to the Byzantine Empire's survival and prosperity for 1,000 years. Section 2 covers the Byzantine Empire under the rule of Justinian I and his wife Theodora. The section details Justinian's achievements, including the development of the Justinian Code, the building of Hagia Sophia (which still stands today), and the expansion of the Empire's boundaries. Section 3 explores the important role that the Eastern Orthodox Church played in the Byzantine Empire. The section explains how the argument over icons, the Patriarch's refusal to recognize the Pope as head of the Church, and the Pope's crowning of Charlemagne as Emperor of the Romans contributed to the split between the Eastern Orthodox and the Roman Catholic churches. Section 4 explains the internal problems and outside forces that weakened the Byzantine Empire and led to its downfall. Between the northeast coast of Africa and central Asia lies the Arabian Peninsula. The people who live there are known as Arabs. In the 600s, a new religion called Islam began in the mountainous area of western Arabia known as the Hejaz. Within 100 years, an Arab empire based on Islamic beliefs had developed. Chapter 22 explores these beliefs and the spread of Islam. Section 1 explains how Islam developed around the teachings of Muhammad. The section details the pillars of faith, the five duties all Muslims must fulfill as described in the Quran, the Muslim scriptures. Section 2 focuses on how Islam spread beyond the Arabian Peninsula after the death of Muhammad. The Arabs succeeded in creating a huge empire. The section describes life in the Arab Empire under the rule of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, the Umayyads, the Abbasids, and the Moors. Section 3 deals with the many contributions of the Arab Empire to modern civilization in the fields of chemistry, astronomy, geography, mathematics, medicine, and the arts. North of the Byzantine Empire lived a people that historians today call Slavs. They were Indo-Europeans, like the Aryans who entered the Indus Valley and the Dorians who conquered the Mycenaeans. Chapter 23 is about the Eastern Slavs. Section 1 describes what life was like for the earliest Eastern Slavs, who began to develop settlements in eastern Europe around 500 A.D. in the areas now known as eastern Poland and western Ukraine. Section 2 explains how early Rus states developed around the capital of Kiev, describes the important rulers, and tells how Eastern Christianity influenced the people of Rus. The section also explains the reasons for the decline of Kievan Rus. Section 3 focuses on the changes the Mongol tribes brought to Rus. Section 4 describes the rise of Moscow as the center of Rus economic and religious life and what life was like there under the rule of czars Ivan the Great and Ivan the Terrible. After the Viking attacks, the people of western Europe wanted security and protection. Western Europe, however, had no central government to keep the peace. Real power had passed from kings to local lords. To protect their property, the nobles raised their own armies. They also developed feudalism, or government by landowning nobles. Chapter 24 focuses on feudal society. Section 1 discusses the reasons that feudalism developed in western Europe. The section explains the roles of and relationship between the lord and the vassal in feudal society. Section 2 describes what castle life was like for noblemen and noblewomen during feudal times. Section 3 focuses on the training and duties of knights and their obligation to follow the code of chivalry that outlined rules for their behavior. Section 4 explains what life was like on the manors, which were owned by nobles and worked by peasants. A diagram of a typical manor is included. Leaders in the Roman Catholic Church wanted to develop a civilization in western Europe that was based on Christian ideals. By A.D. 1000, missionary monks had brought the Church's teachings to most of Europe. Chapter 25 is about the Roman Catholic Church during the Middle Ages. Section 1 explains how the Roman Catholic Church influenced daily and political life during the Middle Ages and describes the actions of the Church toward suspected heretics during the Inquisition. Section 2 covers the attempts that were made to return the Church to Christian ideals during the Middle Ages under the direction of the Monks of Cluny, Pope Gregory VII and the Franciscan and Dominican friars. Section 3 focuses on the growth of learning that took place in the late Middle Ages with the development of cathedral schools and universities. Thomas Aquinas, a noted scholar of this period, is highlighted for his attempts to bring faith and reason together. Section 4 explains why a series of Christian holy wars against the Muslims, called the Crusades, took place for about 200 years during the Middle Ages. This section also examines the effects of the Crusades. During the early 1000s and 1100s, things went well for the people of western Europe. The number of births exceeded the number of deaths, better farming methods resulted in more food, and many peasants became skilled artisans. Western nobles desired the luxury goods that came from the Near East, and they increased trade in order to get them. Chapter 26 examines the growth of trade and towns during the Middle Ages. Section 1 discusses how the growth of trade led to the rise of towns in the Middle Ages, focusing on Venice and Flanders. Section 2 tells how merchants became an important part of European life and development and contributed to the growth of burgs. Section 3 describes the living conditions in medieval towns before and after the changes brought about by burghers. Section 4 focuses on the rise of craft guilds, explaining why they were formed and why they were later opposed. Section 5 discusses the cultural changes that took place to European civilization during the 1400s, focusing on advances in education, art, and literature. The growth of trade and towns during the late Middle Ages led to many changes in western Europe. Some of these changes were political. People wanted a return to strong central governments led by kings. Chapter 27 focuses on the rise of monarchies and how they led to the decline of feudalism in western Europe. Section 1 discusses how the Capetian kings strengthened the French monarchy over a period of 300 years. Section 2 describes the changes that took place in the English monarchy during the Middle Ages under the reigns of William the Conqueror, Henry II, Henry's sons, Richard and John, and Edward I. The section highlights the signing of the Magna Carta and the establishment of Parliament. Section 3 explains the main causes and results of the Hundred Years' War fought between England and France. Section 4 tells about how the Holy Roman Empire was created and ruled. Section 5 focuses on how King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella conquered the Moors and turned Spain into a united, but weak, Catholic monarchy. Around A.D. 1300, scholars in western Europe developed a new interest in classical writings, or the writings of the ancient Greeks and Romans. They also began to accept some Greek and Roman ideas. One idea that the scholars embraced was a belief in the importance of people. Their work caused a break in the thinking of the Middle Ages and led to a new age. Chapter 28 is about the Renaissance, during which people became less concerned with the mysteries of heaven and more interested in the world around them. Section 1 explains how the Renaissance began and flourished in the Italian city-states, including Florence, Venice, and the Papal States. The section focuses on the changes that took place in art and in the daily lives of people in those places. A chart details Renaissance manners. Section 2 describes how France was influenced by the Italian Renaissance and focuses on literature and architecture. Section 3 explains how the Renaissance spread to Germany and Flanders and focuses on developments in religion and in painting and other arts. Section 4 focuses on how the Roman Catholic Church and the government influenced the Renaissance in Spain and highlights developments in the arts and theater. A chart lists the accomplishments of Renaissance people throughout western Europe. Section 5 discusses how the English monarchy promoted the Renaissance in England and focuses on poetry, music, and the plays of William Shakespeare. The Roman Catholic Church did not adjust to the many changes taking place in western Europe during the 1400s and 1500s. Many Europeans began to call for a reformation, or a change, in the way the Church taught and practiced Christianity. Chapter 29 discusses the ideas proposed by the reformers and the Church's response to those ideas. Section 1 focuses on one reformer, Martin Luther, and why his beliefs brought him into conflict with the Roman Catholic Church. Section 2 discusses how a new religion, Protestantism, developed out of Martin Luther's ideas. The section highlights two important Protestant church ministers--Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin who led the Protestant movement in Switzerland. Section 3 describes how Catholic reformers, including Jesuit missionaries and the bishops who met at the Council of Trent, worked to improve their church and to reform and defend Catholic teachings. Section 4 discusses how and why the reformation of the Church of England came about, resulting in a mix of Protestant belief and Catholic practice. Section 5 explains why Europeans became involved in religious wars between Protestants and Catholics. The English defeat over Catholic Spain allowed northern Europe to remain Protestant. The Edict of Nantes made France the first European country to allow both religions to exist side by side. Section 6 focuses on the Thirty Years' War that was fought among the German states and its effects on Europe. The war was the last that Europeans fought over religion. A map details the religions of Europe in 1560. By the 1300s, Italy controlled Europe's trade with India and the Far East. The Italians sold goods to other Europeans for a large profit. Among the goods most in demand were silk, spices, gold, and silver. Because of trade and the desire to spread Christianity, Europeans began to search for a direct sea route to India and the Far East. Chapter 30 focuses on this age of exploration and discovery by the countries of Europe. Section 1 explores why the Europeans searched for a direct sea route to India and the Far East. The section focuses on the achievements and voyages along the coasts of Africa and India of Portuguese explorers Prince Henry the Navigator, Bartolomeu Dias, and Vasco da Gama. Section 2 describes the voyages and discoveries of two navigators who sailed for Spain to the Americas—Christopher Columbus and Ferdinand Magellan. The section also focuses on the dispute about the division of new lands between Spain and Portugal and covers the Spanish conquistadors who explored an area from North America through Central America and the West Indies to South America in the early 1500s. Section 3 focuses on the English, French, and Dutch explorers who searched for a northwest passage to the Far East. The section highlights John Cabot, Giovanni da Verrazano, Jacques Cartier, Sir Martin Frobisher, and Henry Hudson. A chart lists the achievements of other European explorers from the late 1400s to the mid 1700s. From the early 1500s to the 1700s, several western European countries set out to colonize the Americas. They wanted to build permanent settlements on, gain riches from, and spread Christianity to the lands they discovered on their earlier explorations. Chapter 31 is about the expansion of western Europeans into the Americas. Section 1 deals with the land claims and permanent settlements of Portugal in Brazil. Section 2 describes the growth and decline of the empire that Spain established in the Americas, focusing on the Spanish conquest of Native American empires in Mexico and Peru. The section explains the role of the Roman Catholic Church in Spanish colonization. Section 3 focuses on the growth of an English Empire in the Americas from the early English colonies of Roanoke, Jamestown, and Plymouth to the 13 colonies that existed along the Atlantic coast of America by 1733. The section describes how the early colonies were organized and discusses their first governments. A chart lists the Native American groups the English colonists encountered in North America and describes their ways of life. Section 4 covers the colonies established by the Dutch in the Americas, focusing on New Amsterdam, which was later renamed New York by the English. Section 5 covers the French colonies that grew up around the Great Lakes and along the Mississippi River as well as in the West Indies and India. A map of the Americas shows the colonies established by western Europeans by the mid-1700s. Section 6 explains how the empires that developed in the Americas influenced and affected Europeans. By the 1700s, people in the western world had new ideas about government. They were less willing to be ruled without having a voice in government. They also wanted equal justice under the law. Thinkers and writers began spreading ideas about freedom and the right of people to change the government to meet their needs. Chapter 32 focuses on these ideas and how they led to revolution in England, France, and the United States. Section 1 describes the new ideas of the people and the conflicts between the king and Parliament that led to revolution in England beginning in the 1600s. Section 2 explains the conflicts between England and its American colonies that led to revolution and the forming of an independent country. The United States adopted a constitution that set up a new form of government based on the principles of popular sovereignty and limited government. Section 3 focuses on how the American Revolution influenced the people of France to revolt against the unjust use of power by the French monarchy. The section explains how the French Revolution expressed the lasting idea that people had the right to choose their government. By the 1700s, people in the western world not only had new ideas about government but also new ideas about science. These new ideas led to the development of new forms of power and new ways of making goods. Chapter 33 focuses on the changes in science, industry, and ways of living that are known as the Industrial Revolution. Section 1 describes the inventions and discoveries that marked the Scientific Revolution that began in the 1400s. A chart lists important scientists and their accomplishments in the fields of astronomy, medicine, physics, chemistry, biology, and botany. Section 2 covers the developments that took place in farming, called the Agricultural Revolution, and how these changes contributed to the Industrial Revolution. Section 3 discusses how the Industrial Revolution developed, beginning in the textile industry of Great Britain. It describes the many inventions that allowed workers to produce more of many kinds of goods in less time. The concepts of interchangeable parts and automation are explained. Developments in the production of building materials and improvements in transportation are also discussed. Section 4 focuses on the impact that the Industrial Revolution had on people's lives in Great Britain and elsewhere. The section explains the problems associated with the growth of cities and describes the social reforms that helped ease those problems. Section 5 explains how the Industrial Revolution spread from Great Britain to Belgium, France, the United States, and Germany, and how these countries industrialized, helped by the development of electricity and the internal combustion engine. Chapter 34 focuses on the many changes that took place in the United States, Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean Islands, and South America between 1800 and the early 1900s. Section 1 describes the representative government that developed in the United States in the years after winning independence from England, and how and why the United States expanded its boundaries during the 1800s. The concept of manifest destiny is explained and the growth of the United States from east to west is shown on a map. The section discusses the different ways of life in the northern and southern states that led to the Civil War and explains the cultural changes that came about in the United States as a result of industrialization. Section 2 explains how the people in Latin America were inspired by the American and French revolutions to fight for their own independence from European rule. The section focuses on revolutions in the Caribbean Islands, Mexico, Central America, and Brazil, and describes the governments that developed in these newly independent countries. Chapter 35 discusses unrest in Europe as country after country experienced revolution and the growth of nationalism. Section 1 focuses on how Napoleon brought peace and a new government to France, preserving the most important rights the people won in the French Revolution. Emperor by 1804, Napoleon set out to build an empire that would take the place of the Holy Roman Empire. After conquering most of Europe, Napoleon was defeated, forced to abdicate, and exiled from France. Section 2 discusses how the Congress of Vienna divided Napoleon's empire and brought back divine-right monarchy in many areas. The section also explains why liberals, nationalists, and socialists opposed the Congress System, which led to political revolutions in several European countries. Section 3 explains how the growth of nationalism in Italy, Germany, and Austria destroyed the balance of power that was established at the Congress of Vienna. While nationalists in Italy and Germany wanted to unify their nations, nationalists in Austria threatened the unity of the Austrian Empire and the possibility of peace in Europe. In the late 1800s, an interest in colonies rose again. Many countries rushed to take over parts of the world that had not been claimed during the Age of Discovery and the Expansion of the Americas. Among the new colonial powers were Belgium, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the United States. Chapter 36 is about the colonies these powers established in Africa, Asia, and Latin America in the late 1800s. Section 1 discusses the factors that caused the move toward imperialism, including the Industrial Revolution, feelings of nationalism, and the belief that western countries had a duty to "civilize" the non-western peoples of the world. Section 2 focuses on how Great Britain and other European powers established colonies in Africa until by 1914 only two areas in Africa—Ethiopia and Liberia—remained independent. Section 3 describes how the countries of Asia were affected by imperialism. A map shows the spread of European rule in Africa and Asia by the early 1900s. Section 4 focuses on why the imperial powers were interested in Latin America and how the United States became involved by issuing the Monroe Doctrine in 1823. Section 5 discusses the benefits and problems brought about by imperialism. The benefits discussed include the development of orderly government, industry, agriculture, and social reform. The problems include bitter feelings between colonists and colonizers and competition among colonial powers that led to future wars. The first half of the 1900s was a period of turmoil throughout the world. In 1914, a war broke out in Europe that soon grew to be World War I. Although it ended in 1918, anger over the peace settlement and poor economic conditions following the war led to World War II. The same period also saw the rise of communism in Russia and neighboring countries. Chapter 37 discusses the worldwide conflicts and changes in the first half of the twentieth century. Section 1 discusses the causes, events, and results of World War I, also called the Great War. The section explains why the war differed from any earlier war, describing the type of fighting that took place, the number of casualties, and the fact that civilians were attacked. President Wilson's Fourteen Points, the Treaty of Versailles, and the League of Nations are explained. A map illustrates how Europe was changed by World War I. Section 2 deals with the period between World War I and World War II. The section explains how communism developed in Russia, how economic depression affected most of the industrialized countries of the world, including the United States, why Italy and Germany each became a dictatorship, and the events that again led the world to war. Section 3 focuses on World War II, which was fought by the Allied Powers (Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States) and the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan). The section details the events of the war in Europe, Asia, and the Pacific, as well as the aftermath and results of the war. Soon after World War II ended, a split occurred among the major Allied powers. On one side, the Soviet Union supported communism. On the other side, the democratic United States, Great Britain, and France were anti-communist. Chapter 38 focuses on the Cold War, or period of hostility without fighting, that developed between these two sides in the years after World War II. Section 1 explains how relationships between Western and Communist powers have changed since World War II and discusses events that have taken place in the communist countries of East Germany, North Korea, Cuba, and North Vietnam. The section also explains how the space race between the United States and the Soviet Union was central to the Cold War. Section 2 discusses China before the establishment of communist government and focuses on what life has been like in the People's Republic of China under Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping. Changes that have taken place in the Soviet Union under Khrushchev, Brezhnev, and Gorbachev are also described. Section 3 introduces the term developing nations and explores how some of these countries have struggled with political and economic problems. Since independence, Indian leaders have worked to set up a stable government and to improve poor living conditions. In Africa, nationalism after World War II led to independence for many countries, yet they still faced numerous problems. Since gaining independence, most Latin American countries have benefited from, but have also resented, foreign investors. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the cold war come to an end. With the collapse of communism, the nations of Eastern Europe won independence and the Soviet Union broke up into 15 republics. The nations of the world have worked collectively to deal with military, economic, and environmental problems. Chapter 39 is about the world since 1989. Section 1 explains how independence came to the nations of Eastern Europe after communism collapsed and what changes came to Russia after the breakup of the Soviet Union. Section 2 explores how nations responded to issues of war and peace after the cold war ended. Events in China, Ireland, Southeast Asia, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and several African nations are highlighted. Section 3 focuses on the challenges the world faces that require cooperation among nations. These challenges include global terrorism, a growing population, communicable diseases and other health care issues, the environment, and global trade and communications. |